The Relationship between Preschool Children’s Anxiety and Life Skills: The Mediating Role of Self-Regulation
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37134/saecj.vol13.1.2.2024Keywords:
Anxiety, self-regulation, life skills, preschool childrenAbstract
The present study examined the mediating role of self-regulation in the relationship between preschool children's anxiety and life skills. Children's anxiety, self-regulation, and life skills were assessed using the "Children's Anxiety Scale-Mothers' Form," "The Self-Regulation Skills Scale for Children aged 4 to 6 (Mothers' Form)," "The Early Childhood Life Skills Scale," and the data obtained from 303 participants who participated in the survey were tested through PLS to SEM. Although preschool children's anxiety is not directly related to life skills, self-regulation fully mediates the relationship between anxiety and life skills. The results provided preliminary evidence for the mechanism by which children's anxiety affects self-regulation and life skills. These findings suggest that the relationship between anxiety and life skills varies according to children's self-regulatory abilities. The findings have practical implications for supporting the development of self-regulation in preschool children.
Downloads
References
Achenbach, T., & Rescorla, L.A. (2000). Manual for ASEBA preschool forms and files. University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth & Families, Burlington.
Alvord, M. K., & Grados, J. J. (2005). Enhancing Resilience in Children: A Proactive Approach. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(3), 238–245. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.36.3.238
Amirian, K. (2012). P-834 - Effect of life skills education on academic achievement of first year high school male students. European Psychiatry, 27(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(12)75001-0.
Angold, A., & Egger, H. L. (2007). Preschool psychopathology: lessons for the lifespan. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(10), 961-966. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01832.x
Bastık, U. (2018). Teachers 'opinions to ensure life skills in life information [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Gaziantep University.
Bell, M. A., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2007). Biological systems and the development of self-regulation: integrating behavior, genetics, and psychophysiology. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP, 28(5), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181131fc7
Bellibaş, E., Büküşoğlu, N. & Erermiş, S. (2005). Temperament traits in a group of children diagnosed separation anxiety disorder. Ege Tıp Dergisi, 44(1), 39-44.
Botvin, G. J., & Griffin, K. W. (2014). Life skills training: preventing substance misuse by enhancing individual and social competence. New Directions for Youth Development, 2014(141), 57–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20086
Botvin, G. J., Griffin, K. W., Paul, E., & Macaulay, A. P. (2003). Preventing tobacco and alcohol use among elementary school students through life skills training. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 12(4), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1300/J029v12n04_01
Boyd, J., Barnett, W.S., Bodrova, E., Leong, D.J., & Gomby, D. (2005). Promoting children's social and emotional development through preschool education. http://nieer.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/report7.pdf
Buckner, J. C., Mezzacappa, E., & Beardslee, W. R. (2003). Characteristics of resilient youths living in poverty: the role of self-regulatory processes. Development and Psychopathology, 15(1), 139–162. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579403000087
Carrasco, M. A., Holgado-Tello, F. P., Delgado, B., & González-Peña, P. (2016). Reactive temperament traits and behavioral problems in children: The mediating role of effortful control across sex and age. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13(2), 197-212. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2015.1083852
Chandra, V. (2018). Child well-being and life skills for children. International Journal of Life Skills Education, 4(1), 90-100.
Chupradit, P. W., Vitayacheeva, . P., Prommas, . R., Prasannarong, . M., Thummasorn, . S., Apichai, . S., Chingchit, . W., Chaiwong, . P., Janton, . C., Leewattana, . A., Joompathong, . N., Kumkronglek, . J., Kumkun, . C., Maghanemi, . U., Rattanasthien, . K., Kumfang, . N., Uppamaiathichai, . T. & Chupradit, . S. (2020). New paradigm for the life skills development of children and youth in elementary education schools in the Rural Highland of Omkoi District, Chiang Mai, Thailand: Towards achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Systematic Reviews in Pharmacy, 11(9), 713-718. https://doi.org/10.31838/srp.2020.9.102
Coplan, R.J., & Ooi, L. (2013). Young Children's Peer Relations: Links with Early Developing Anxiety and Depression. In Tremblay R.E., Boivin M., Peters R.DeV (Eds.), Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development (pp.1-7). https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/anxiety-and-depression/according-experts/young-childrens-peer-relations-links-early-developing.
Denham, S. A., Bassett, H. H., Zinsser, K., & Wyatt, T. M. (2014). How preschoolers' social–emotional learning predicts their early school success: Developing theory‐promoting, competency‐based assessments. Infant and Child Development, 23(4), 426–454. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1840
Doğanay-Koç, E., & Gültekin-Akduman, G. (2017). Mother attachment styles of children aged 60 months and over who attend pre-school education; effect on emotional skill levels. Journal of International Social Research, 10(51), 101-113. https://doi.org/10.33418/ataunikkefd.728923
Drahota, A., Sterling, L., Hwang, W. C., & Wood, J. J. (2013). Daily living skills in school‐age children with and without anxiety disorders. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52(1), 107-112. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12015
Drahota, A., Wood, J. J., Sze, K. M., & Van Dyke, M. (2011). Effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on daily living skills in children with high-functioning autism and concurrent anxiety disorders. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 41(3), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1037-4
Durmuşoğlu-Saltalı, N., & Arslan, E. (2012). The Predicting Power of Interpersonal Self-Efficacies on Teaching Attitudes: A Study on Preschool Teachers. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8(2), 77-84.
Edwards, S. L., Rapee, R. M., Kennedy, S. J., & Spence, S. H. (2010). The assessment of anxiety symptoms in preschool-aged children: the revised Preschool Anxiety Scale. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 39(3), 400-409. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374411003691701
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Losoya, S. H., & Guthrie, I. K. (2001). The relations of regulation and emotionality to children's externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. Child Development, 72(4), 1112–1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00337
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality of social functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 136–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.136
Eisenberg, N., Pidada, S., & Liew, J. (2001). The relations of regulation and negative emotionality to Indonesian children's social functioning. Child Development, 72(6), 1747–1763. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00376
Eisenberg, N., Smith, C. L., Sadovsky, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2004). Effortful control: Relations with emotion regulation, adjustment, and socialization in childhood. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 259–282). The Guilford Press.
Erol, A. & İvrendi, A. (2018). Developing an Instrument for Measuring Self-Regulation Skills of 4-6 -Year -Old Children (Mother Form). PAU Journal of Education, 44, 178-195. https://doi.org/10.9779/PUJE.2018.213
Ezmeci, F. (2019). The effect of preschool self-regulation program on children's self-regulation, problem behavior, and social skills [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Hacettepe University
Fan, H., Xue, L., Xiu, J., Chen, L., & Liu, S. (2022). Harsh parental discipline and school bullying among Chinese adolescents: The role of moral disengagement and deviant peer affiliation. Children and Youth Services Review, 145,106767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106767
Ginsburg, K. R., American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Communications, & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. Pediatrics, 119(1), 182–191. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-2697
Göktürk-İnce., F. (2014). An examination on the effect of peaceful life skills education program on pre-school children's social adaptation and skills [Unpublished master’s thesis]. İnonu University.
Goodman, A., Joshi, H., Nasim, B. & Tyler, C. (2015). Social and emotional skills in childhood and their long-term effects on adult life. Institute of Education. https://www.eif.org.uk/report/social-and-emotional-skills-in-childhood-and-their-long-term-effects-on-adult-life
Gülay-Ogelman, H., & Önder, A. (2020). Psikolojik dayanıklılığın tanımı ve önemi. A. Önder & H. Gülay Ogelman (Eds.). Çocuk ve psikolojik dayanıklılık (pp. 1-14). Nobel Publishing.
Güler-Yıldız, T., Ertürk-Kara, H. G., Fındık-Tanrıbuyurdu, E. & Gönen, M. (2014). Examining self-regulation skills according to teacher-child interaction quality. Education and Science, 39(176). 329- 338. http://dx.doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.3648
Güngör, H. & Buluş, M. (2016). The role of parent perfectionism on predicting anxiety level of 5 and 6 years old preschool children. PAU Journal of Education, 39, 147-159.
Hannesdottir, D. K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2007). The role of emotion regulation in the treatment of child anxiety disorders. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10(3), 275–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-007-0024-6
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Hodge, K., Danish, S., & Martin, J. (2013). Developing a conceptual framework for life skills interventions. The Counseling Psychologist, 41(8), 1125–1152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000012462073.
Holland, M. L., Malmberg, J., & Peacock, G. G. (2017). Emotional and behavioral problems of young children: Effective interventions in the preschool and kindergarten years. Guilford Publications.
Hrbackova, K. & Safrankova, A. P. (2016). Self-regulation of behavior in children and adolescent in the natural and instituonal environment. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 217, 679-687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.02.119
Huber, L., Plötner, M., & Schmitz, J. (2019). Social competence and psychopathology in early childhood: a systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(4), 443–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1152-x
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2005). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness (15th anniversary ed.). Delta Trade Paperback/Bantam Dell.
Keleş, S. (2014). Investigation of the effect of the education program prepared in the context of cultural-historical theory on the self-regulation development of 48-60 month old children [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Gazi University.
Kim, S., Nordling, J. K., Yoon, J. E., Boldt, L. J., & Kochanska, G. (2013). Effortful control in "hot" and "cool" tasks differentially predicts children's behavior problems and academic performance. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9661-4
Kline, R.B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th Ed.). The Guilford Press.
Kochanska, G., Aksan, N., Penney, S. J., & Doobay, A. F. (2007). Early positive emotionality as a heterogeneous trait: implications for children's self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 1054–1066. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1054
Küçüködük, C. (2015). The relationship between the separation anxiety and attachment styles of mothers who have preschool children between the ages of 3-5 and the behavior of their children: the mediator factor of cognitive flexibility [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Hacettepe University.
LaBillois, J. M., & Lagacé‐Séguin, D. G. (2009). Does a good fit matter? Exploring teaching styles, emotion regulation, and child anxiety in the classroom. Early Child Development and Care, 179(3), 303-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430601078636
Ladd, G. W., & Burgess, K. B. (2001). Do relational risks and protective factors moderate the linkages between childhood aggression and early psychological and school adjustment? Child Development, 72(5), 1579–1601. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00366
Lavigne, J. V., Hopkins, J., Gouze, K. R., & Bryant, F. B. (2015). Bidirectional influences of anxiety and depression in young children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(1), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9884-7
Lee, M. J., Wu, W. C., Chang, H. C., Chen, H. J., Lin, W. S., Feng, J. Y., & Lee, T. S. H. (2020). Effectiveness of a school-based life skills program on emotional regulation and depression among elementary school students: A randomized study. Children and Youth Services Review, 118, 105464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105464
MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2012). Common method bias in marketing: Causes, mechanisms, and procedural remedies. Journal of Retailing, 88(4), 542-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2012.08.001
Mccelland, M. M. & Tominey. S. L. (2011). Introduction to do special issue on self-regulation in early childhood. Early Education and Development, 22(3), 355-359. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2011.574265
McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Duncan, R., Bowles, R. P., Acock, A. C., Miao, A., & Pratt, M. E. (2014). Predictors of early growth in academic achievement: The head-toes-knees-shoulders task. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 599. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00599
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(7), 2693–2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108
Montroy, J. J., Bowles, P. P., Skibbe, L. L. & Foster. T. D. (2014). Social skills and problem behaviors as mediators of the relationship between behavioral self-regulation and academic achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29, 298–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.03.002
Morosanova, V. I., & Fomina, T. G. (2017). Self-regulation as a mediator in the relationship between anxiety and academic examination performance. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 237, 1066-1070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2017.02.156
Mostafazadeh A.M., Refougaran H., Moradi M., Adinepour-Sarab M., & Sabbagh K. (2022). The effectiveness of play therapy with life skills approach on separation anxiety syndrome in preschool children. Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health, 24(2), 129-135.
Ollendick, T. H., & Hirshfeld-Becker, D. R. (2002). The developmental psychopathology of social anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 51(1), 44–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01305-1
Orgilés, M., Fernández-Martínez, I., Espada, J. P., & Morales, A. (2019). Spanish version of Super Skills for Life: short- and long-term impact of a transdiagnostic prevention protocol targeting childhood anxiety and depression. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 32(6), 694–710. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2019.1645836
Öztabak, M. E. (2017). Investigating the relationship between self-regulation skills of preschool children and parental attitudes [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Karabük University.
Perren, S., & Alsaker, F.D. (2009). Depressive symptoms from kindergarten to early school age: longitudinal associations with social skills deficits and peer victimization. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health, 3(28), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-3-28
Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531-544.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879.
Preacher, K.J. & Hayes, A.F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879-891. https://doi.org/10.3758/brm.40.3.879
Quiñones-Camacho, L. E., & Davis, E. L. (2019). Emotion regulation strategy knowledge moderates the link between cumulative stress and anxiety symptoms in childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 43(4), 369–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025419833821
Rademacher, A., & Koglin, U. (2019). The concept of self-regulation and preschoolers’ social-emotional development: A systematic review. Early Child Development and Care, 189(14), 2299-2317. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1450251
Rademacher, A., Goagoses, N., Schmidt, S., Zumbach, J., & Koglin, U. (2022). Preschoolers’ profiles of self-regulation, social-emotional and behavior skills and its prediction for a successful behavior adaptation during the transitional period from preschool to elementary school. Early Education and Development, 33(7), 1137-1151. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2021.1958283
Rademacher, A., Zumbach, J., & Koglin, U. (2022). Cross-lagged effects of self-regulation skills and behaviour problems in the transition from preschool to elementary school. Early Child Development and Care, 192(4), 631-637. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2020.1784891
Rahmani, M. (2019). The effect of life skills training on mental health and student self-esteem. Global Journal of Human-Social Science: An Arts & Humanities-Psychology, 19(4), 23-30
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (Eds.). (2001). Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice. Guilford Press.
Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to preventing relapse. Guilford Press.
Sepitci-Sarıbaş, M. & Gültekin-Akduman, G. (2019). 5-6 yaş çocuklarının öz düzenleme becerilerinin okul uyumu ile ilişkisi [The relationship between self-regulation skills of 5-6-year-old children and school adjustment]. Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 12(63), 867-883. http://dx.doi.org/10.17719/jisr.2019.3283
Shamir-Essakow, G., Ungerer, J. A., & Rapee, R. M. (2005). Attachment, behavioral inhibition, and anxiety in preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(2), 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-1822-2
Shechtman, Z., Levy, M., & Leichtentritt, J. (2005). Impact of life skills training on teachers' perceived environment and self-efficacy. The Journal of Educational Research, 98(3), 144-155. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.98.3.144-155
Smith-Donald, R., Raver, C. C., Hayes, T., & Richardson, B. (2007). Preliminary construct and concurrent validity of the Preschool Self-regulation Assessment (PSRA) for field-based research. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22(2), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.01.002
Spence, S. H., Rapee, R., McDonald, C., & Ingram, M. (2001). The structure of anxiety symptoms among preschoolers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(11), 1293–1316. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(00)00098-x
Suveg, C., Hoffman, B., Zeman, J. L., & Thomassin, K. (2009). Common and specific emotion-related predictors of anxious and depressive symptoms in youth. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40(2), 223–239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-008-0121-x
Tabachnick, B.G. & Fidell, L.S. (2012). Using multivariate statistics (6th Ed.). Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Teglasi, H., Schussler, L., Gifford, K., Annotti, L. A., Sanders, C., & Liu, H. (2015). Child Behavior Questionnaire-Short Form for teachers: Informant correspondences and divergences. Assessment, 22(6), 730–748. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191114562828
Thapar, A., Collishaw, S., Pine, D. S., & Thapar, A. K. (2012). Depression in adolescence. Lancet, 379(9820), 1056–1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60871-4
Thompson, R. A. (2001). Childhood anxiety disorders from the perspective of emotion regulation. Vasey, M. D. & Dadds, M. R. (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 160- 182). Oxford University Press
Topcu- Bilir, Z. (2022). Early Childhood Life Skills Scale: Scale development reliability and validity study. Theory and Practice in Child Development, 2(1), 22-40. https://doi.org/10.46303/tpicd.2022.8
Topcu- Bilir, Z., & Erkan, N.S. (2022). The life skılls program’s effec1ts on lıfe skılls, self-conceptıons and socıal-emotıonal compatıbılıty levels of chıldren. In E. Bay (Ed.), International Research in Educational Sciences (pp. 205-221). Serüven Publishing.
Tymes, D. D., Outlaw, K. L., & Hamilton, B. K. (2016). Life skills interventions to improve social confidence, self-management, and protection against drug use in rural elementary school aged children. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 33(1), 11-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370016.2016.1120592
Ümmet, D., & Demirci, G. (2017). The effect of group counseling implementation on secondary school students’ wellbeing in the context of life skills education. Marmara Üniversitesi Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 45(45), 153-170. https://doi.org/10.15285/maruaebd.263879
UNICEF. (2019). Boys on the move: A trainer’s handbook for implementation of a life skills programme for unaccompanied adolescents boys and young men. https://www.unicef.org/eca/media/10271/file
Veijalainen, J., Reunamo, J., & Alijoki, A. (2017). Children’s self-regulation skills in the Finnish day care environment. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research, 6(1), 89–107.
Visu-Petra, L., & Mărcuș, O. (2019). Cognitive (in) flexibility: Potential risk factor for internalizing psychopathology across development? In P. Buchwald, K. Moore, K. Kaniasty & P. Arenas-Landgrave (Eds.), Stress and anxiety-contributions of the STAR Award Winners (pp.125-134). Logos Verlag Berlin.
von Salisch, M., Haenel, M., & Denham, S. A. (2015). Self-regulation, language skills, and emotion knowledge in young children from northern Germany. Early Education and Development, 26(5-6), 792–806. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.994465
von Suchodoletz, A., Trommsdorff, G., Heikamp, T., Wieber, F., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2009). Transition to school: The role of kindergarten children’s behavior regulation. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(4), 561–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2009.07.006
Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2004). Strengthening social and emotional competence in young children—The foundation for early school readiness and success: Incredible years classroom social skills and problem-solving curriculum. Infants & Young Children, 17(2), 96-113.
Wells, A., & Matthews, G. (2014). Attention and emotion: A clinical perspective. Lawrence Erlbaum .
White, L. K., McDermott, J. M., Degnan, K. A., Henderson, H. A., & Fox, N. A. (2011). Behavioral inhibition and anxiety: the moderating roles of inhibitory control and attention shifting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(5), 735–747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9490-x
Wild, L. G., Flisher, A. J., & Lombard, C. (2004). Suicidal ideation and attempts in adolescents: associations with depression and six domains of self-esteem. Journal of Adolescence, 27(6), 611-624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.03.001
Williams, S. R., & Woodruff-Borden, J. (2015). Parent emotion socialization practices and child self-regulation as predictors of child anxiety: The mediating role of cardiac variability. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 46(4), 512–522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-014-0492-046, 512-522.
Winarsunu, T., Azizaha, B. S. I., Fasikha, S. S., & Anwar, Z. (2023). Life skills training: Can it increases self-esteem and reduces student anxiety? Heliyon, 9(4), e15232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15232
World Health Organization [WHO]. (1997). Life skills education for children and adolescents in schools: Introduction and guidelines to facilitate the development and implementation of life skills programmes. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Programme on Mental Health.
Wu, C. Y., & Lee, T. S. (2020). Impact of parent-child relationship and sex on trajectories of children internalizing symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 260, 167–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.016
Yadavari, M. (2004). Effect of life skills training on public health and self-esteem in high school girl students in Ahwaz city [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Azad University.
Yıldırım, Y. (2017). The effect of life skills training program on 60-72 months old kindergarten children's life skills and social adaptation [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Gazi University.
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In U. Goswami (Ed.), Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development (pp.445–469). Blackwell Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470996652.ch20
Zelazo, P. D., Blair, C. B., & Willoughby, M. T. (2016). Executive function: Implications for education. U. S. Department of Education (pp. 1–148). https://ies.ed.gov/ncer/pubs/20172000/pdf/20172000.pdf
Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., Jr., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1086/651257
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Aylin Sop
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
